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America's Very First Aircraft Carrier

here have been many great naval warfare ships over the history of the U.S. Navy. Many aircraft carriers went on to great distinction especially in the heroic battles that were part of World War II Naval warfare history. Names like the Lexington, the Saratoga, the Yorktown and the Enterprise fill the history books of great warships of World War 2 naval warfare. But the humble USS Langley has a long and distinguished career that included becoming the first ship to be retrofitted into an aircraft carrier that make the Langley worth of its own place in U.S. Naval history as well.

The Langley actually started out as the USS Jupiter when it was first commissioned in 1911. The Jupiter was a collier level ship and once it was put into action, it spent some time South America helping to establish a military presence during the difficult Veracruz crisis in 1914. But once that tension passed, the Jupiter got its first historic distinction of becoming the first ship to go through the Panama Canal from west to east. This was the beginning of some quiet accomplishments of this fine naval ship.

For the next decade, the Jupiter served primarily support functions mostly doing cargo duty and that was the service it provided during World War I. The Jupiter did see many ports performing support functions throughout Europe before returning to Norfolk Virgina to start a new life. On December 12, 1919, the life of "the Jupiter" came to an end when it was decommissioned. But for the vessel itself, this was only the beginning of its long and honorable career as a US naval warship.

It was in Norfolk that the former USS Jupiter underwent a transformation. Not only did it take on the name USS Langley in honor of Samuel Pierpont Langley, the ship underwent a dramatic transformation into the very first prototype of a U.S. naval aircraft carrier. The final configuration of the overhauled naval vessel was compete in 1922. Her very first commander in this new assignment was Kenneth Whiting and it was he who proudly put the Langley to work helping the navy develop the Navy's powerful aviation warfare capabilities that would make such a huge difference in winning the war against the axis powers that lay ahead.

As the first aircraft carrier ever in what would become the backbone of the American naval aircraft infrastructure, the Langley racked up plenty of firsts. October 17, 1922, was the first time a pilot took off from the deck of a ship. Just nine days later Lieutenant Commander Godfrey de Courcelles Chevalier was the first pilot to land on an aircraft carrier deck when he set down on the deck of the Langley.

The Langley continued to be a valuable part of the US naval arsenal even after it was converted to a seaplane trader in 1936. Then on February 27th, 1942, while supporting antisubmarine maneuvers during World War II, The Langley was struck by an onslaught of nine Japanese bombers, which tragically damaged the ship critically causing it to sink in the line of duty. But it is worthwhile to take some time as we have done here today to look back on an important part of our US naval history at a ship that through many evolutions served its country honorably and ushered in the era of the US Navy aircraft carrier. And that historic ship was the USS Langley.

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Revealed: advantages of n Scale Model trains

The N scale model trains are one of the smallest and most delicate of all model trains. They are small but they also offer many advantages over the larger scaled model trains. As you know, small can often be better when it comes to trains and track size, depending on your free space available.

 

If you have a very limited amount of space at home, then you might need to choose the N scale, as you have no other options. The N scale is actually the smallest of the four possible model scales that you can select and build with. However, the small scale can actually work to your advantage.

 

For example, the small scale means that you can fit a larger amount of track into the same amount of space. This means that you can run more trains, add more track and also create more scenes within your railroad layout. If you are keen to have a big network of track, then the N scale is perfect for you.

 

There is really no point having a large-scale train set if you are only able to display a small section of it. This does not make sense. You will have much more fun with the N scale when your space is limited.

 

There are also many advantages to the smaller model trains. The N scale model trains are detailed in a much more realistic way. Many people comment on how the N scale trains have the most detail from any of the model train scales. The finer aspects of the real trains are transplanted to the model trains when you buy from the N scale.

 

In fact, it is for this reason that many experienced model train hobbyists like to collect the N scale. They want to have their model trains as close to the real thing as possible so they choose to run and collect the N scale. This is a huge advantage to you if you enjoy having strong detail and realistic trains on your track.

 

The next advantage of the N scale is that it is very practical and easy to construct. It is much easier to put together than many of the other model train scales. It doesn’t require a lot of skill, as the track sections are very small. This means that you can quickly create different track layouts and redesign your current railway line.

 

The effect that is produced from the N scale model train track is also fantastic. Because the track layout is so small, it gives you a bird’s eye view of the train network, which is something the other scales do not offer.

 

So, if you are a beginner, then the N scale makes sense. You can get started right away, don’t need much space, and you can do everything yourself as it’s very simple to put together. This means that you can have all you want with the N scale, so don’t worry that your space is limited.

 

As you can see, the N scale model train makes perfect sense for hobbyists at all levels of the skill scale. Experienced people and beginners will really enjoy it.

About the Author

Philip Redfearn is an avid model train enthusiast. For more great information on model trains, and to sign up for a free Ultimate Model Railway Secrets 11 lesson mini-course, visit http://www.ultimatemodelrailway.com

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MiG Flights: Get an Insight into Mig 29 Jet Fighters

If you want to do a mig flight, you can currently only choose between a mig 29 flight or a flight in the mig-31. A few years ago, many more aircraft were available for a rented ride: Russian mig flights were carried out in mig-21, mig-23 and even mig-25. Those days are gone. What has changed?

To understand the current situation, let's look how the mig flights in Russia have evolved since the break-up of the Soviet Union.
Back in the 1990s, a mig flight was affordable for almost every European or American. Trembling Russian economy and widespread corruption made russian mig flights an incredible, yet affordable adventure - especially if you knew the right ways of booking.

All of these mig flights took off from the LII institute, situated at the Ramenskoye Airfield in Zhukovsky, right outside of Moscow. A big fleet of MiGs, primarily used for flight tests, were available for private rides. At times, Russia's trembling economy along with the low-rated ruble were the reasons why mig jet flights with paying clients accounted for the majority of mig flights in Zhukovsky. In some months, such "commercial" flights even surpassed the regular jet flights of the institute in numbers.

As Russia re-gained strength and recovered from the turmoil of the 1990s, jet flights at LII in Zhukovsky were realigned. In January 2006, a governmental decision to stop mig jet flights with paying tourists was issued, supposedly making mig jet flights for tourists in Moscow a thing of the past. Normal military operations continued, of course - such mig flights were not interrupted, normal operations from air bases like Kubinka were kept in place.

This is not the end of the story, though. Big parts of the Russian military-industrial complex have been suffering from decreasing arms sales. The SOKOL Aircraft Factory in Nizhniy Novgorod, an industrial city in the Volga region not far from Moscow, was desperately searching for new ways to generate revenue. After intensive contact between high-ranked staff of the SOKOL Aircraft plant and the flight broker MiGFlug.com, people at the factory started to realize that russian mig flights were in high demand - and that the unavailability of such flights at LII led to a supply vacuum. As producer of MiG-29UB aircraft (UB is the two-seater version of the MiG-29), people at SOKOL plant started to realize that mig jet flights could be a way to generate revenue and got the necessary permissions to carry out mig 29 flights as well as mig 31 flights with paying clients. Finally, after the uncertainity of early 2006, Russian mig flights were possible again.

In Summer 2006, only months after mig jet flights in Zhukovsky came to a halt, the first-ever so-called "westerner" took off from Sormovo Airfield in Nizhniy Novgorod, where today's mig 29 flights are being carried out. Long and intensive negotiations between the Aircraft Factory and Zurich-based MiGFlug made it possible for a Swiss Citizen in his 30's to open a new era of mig flights. Since that day in July 2006, mig 29 flights are a common sight in the skies of Nizhniy Novgorod and russian mig flights remain possible, even for non-pilots.

About the Author

Vyacheslav Spiridonov graduated the journalistic faculty of MGIMO (MSIIR) in Moscow. Since his teenage years he's passionate about aviation and an observer of the Soviet / Russian Air Force and the military-industrial complex. The author has a wide experience in the aviation industry and hence likes to share the article related to fly fighters, mig flights, mig 29 flight and flying fighter field.

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TEACHER CREATIVITY AND TEACHER PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCY

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 

                   The unending effort to make their lives comfortable and their unquenchable thirst to probe into truth made the people to put forth strenuous trials to bring such an explosion in knowledge in various aspects.  As a result, today man has secured power to create energy, to cultivate land, to conserve water, to control diseases and to tap every source and make its effective use.  This is possible because of requisite interest on knowledge, which can be imparted though education.

          Though education was considered as paediocentric, it is a bigger process in which the personality of one person influences on others with a view to modify his behavior in order to bring about his all-round development in thought, feeling and action.  A continuous inter-play or exchange of ideas between the Teacher and the taught, central this, interaction process is the teacher.  While education is essence, the teacher still occupies a prior in essence, the teacher still occupies a priori central role in the learning of a child.

          It is evident that the effective and efficient functioning of any institute primarily depends on the quality and commitment of its human resources.  The right attitude towards the profession, involvement in teaching, concern over the profession, aptitude towards teaching zeal and enthusiasm in his profession, mental health of the teacher are essential requisite conditions to prevail in a teacher who could definitely bring success in his school programme.

          Many schemes were launched to attain total literacy before the dawn of the millennium.  Vast gulf prevails between the existing rate of literacy of our country and the rate of total literacy. It will be a mirage even after a period of ten years to attain this wish and it may not be cherished.  Education is an apprenticeship of human life and a vital need to result at natural, harmonious and progressive development of child’s latent powers and innate talents.  Thus the basic aim of education is the overall growth of an individual which in its turn enhances the growth of the society.  Hence, the classrooms have assumed a predominant position in achieving the aims and objectives of education.  In this connection this is right time to explore the need to consider the relationship between Creativity and Behaviour Problems among the Teacher community.

          Teaching is research out the pupils to make them enrich.  But do the existing teachers is competent teach all the category pupils in the class i.e., dullards, average and gifted individuals.  Teachers’ responsibility does not seize when he has satisfied the average individual in the class, though they are more in numbers.  To quench the thirst of the gifted individual the teacher should keep himself abreast with new techniques and novel strategy which is not an easy job and it is a hard task to successfully achieve.  Still baffling problem for every ideal teacher is to go down to the level of the dullard and the cater the needs of hard-to-reach individual in the class without neglecting them and enabling them to be a drop out from the class and deviant from school, which thrusters the ulterior motive of ‘national literacy mission’.  To successfully shoulder all these responsibilities the Teacher should be creative and competent.  Modern teacher is expected to shoulder the multi-dimensions responsibility to initiate desired learning and outcomes.  To suit the needs of people in this rapid scientific and technological era, the teaching learning transaction should be sensitive and sophisticated. Keeping all these trivial issues in mind the investigator decided to make a probe into the relationship between Creativity and Professional Competency.  The conceptual foundations are presented in the following pages.

 

 

CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS

 

          Educational is a natural harmonious development of child’s talent powers and innate talents.  Teacher’s role is pivotal in providing education and making the nation literature.  To make the nation totally literate and to attain ‘educational for all’, to improve educational standards and to increase the level of achievement teacher should not be not only a committed and devoted but also competent and creative.

Creativity:

          Creativity is defined as the ability to bring something new into existence, creativity is distinguished by novelty, originality and is unusually inventive.  Creativity was believed to be a heaven’s gift, a rare quality of distinguished individuals with inborn talent.  In the present study an individual who is flexible in thought and action, which can produce novel ideas, express his ideas fluently and long with certain personality traits is said to be creative.

          The need for more and better creative thinking and production were felt before mid century, but it was not until after that point in time that scientific research and technological development really got off grant.  Education is not at all an exception to the above fact.  It comprises of a positive science of learning and creative art of teaching.  But in most of the formal teaching is neglected.  As pointed out by Guilford (1985) ‘Teachers always want a correct answer but not clever answer’.

          In the past three decades there has been an enormous amount of research which could answer the queries – what is creativity?  What are its dimensions? How to measure and predict them?  What are the ways to foster creativity and what are the characteristics of creative persons?  What are the various creative dimensions find in various professional like poets, artists, musicians, architects etc.  Many efforts are being made by number of researches to identify and to classify the various dimensions of creativity.

Creativity Definitions:

          Generally psychologists have tried to define creativity in terms of (a) Mental ability consisting of many component abilities; (b) A capacity to do a thing or produce something of a particular nature and (c) A subjective experience or process having special characteristics.

          According to Torrence (1962) ‘Creativity thinking’ is the process of sensing gaps distributing, missing elements, forming ideas or hypotheses concerning them and testing.  These hypotheses subsequently redefined by Torrence (1966) that Creativity as….’ A process of becoming sensitive to problem, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonious and so on; identifying the difficulty, searching for solutions, making guesses or formulating hypotheses and possibly modifying and retesting them and finally communicating the results.

          Wallach and Kogan (1965) viewed creativity as individual’s capacity or ability to generate cognitive associates in quality and with uniquiness.

          Whereas Peli (1988) defined ‘Creativity is a process of interacting with the organism to bring out desired learning outcome, ability to generate novel ideas spontaneously, adapting to situations, using the immediate environment for effective communication.  Provoking thought in interacting agency.

          From the above definitions creativity can be understood as art of Teaching and act of research.  The definitions of creativity given byTorrence is nothing but an act of research and the definition of Peli implies teaching.

What is Creativity?

          Creativity is a complex term and embraces many aspects.  No single definition would be able to cover all the aspects.  Following are some of the views and definitions given by pioneers in the field.

(a)         Creativity is a mental process whereby an individual produces something uniquely new to himself.

(b)         It is a capacity, which leads to innovations in various fields of knowledge.  It is an aptitude tract and a way of life.

(c)         According to Dr.E.P.Torrence (1960) defined creativity is the process of sensing gaps and discovering missing elements, forming hypotheses or ideas concerning them, testing these hypotheses and communicating their results, probably modifying and resting these hypotheses.

(d)         According to Gagne viewed it as problem-solving.

(e)         Drevdhal (1956) defined creativity is a capacity of persons to produce composition.

(f)          Whereas Peers, Damular and Quackirbush (1960) stated that Creativity is the capacity of the individual to avoid the usual routine conventional way of thinking and doing things and producing a quantity of ideas, which are original, novel and which are workable.

Creativity its Dimensions:

          To measure the Creativity three dimensions like Fluency, Originality, Flexibility are taken into account as shown in the following diagram.

CREATIVITY

 

 

 

                                      Flexibility                  Originality

 

Fluency

                                              

          Every psychological concept can be analyzed or understood basing on its dimensions.  The concept of creativity can best be explained clearly with the help of its dimensions.  The status of our information regarding the primary dimensions of creativity can perhaps be meaning fully presented by considering its major dimensions.  Psychologists addressed more than two dozen of such dimensions viz., Fluency, Originality, Flexibility, Elaboration, Divergent Thinking, Convergent Thinking, Novelty, Ability to produce greater and total number of ideas, uniqueness, usefulness, independent in judgment, resourceful, independent in thought and action etc.

          In addition Javedekar (1963) in his philosophical work mentioned ‘freedom’ openness sportily and progressiveness as dimensions of creativity.  But out of the dimensions mentioned four dimensions – fluency, originality, flexibility and personality traits are very important dimensions for which understanding and measurement of creativity is plausible.

          It is hypothesized that ‘fluency’ of thinking would be an important aspect of creativity.  This is a quantitative aspect that has to do with fertility of ideas.  There is a factor of word fluency an ability to produce words each containing a specified letter or combination of letters.  A factor of ‘associational fluency’ is indicated best in a test that requires to examine to produce as many synonyms as he can for a given word in a limited time.  A factor ‘expressional fluency’ is ability to produce phrases and sentences.  The need for rapid juxtaposition of words to meet the requirements of sentence structure seems to be the unique characteristic.  The other factor of fluency is ‘ideational fluency’.  This is the ability to produce ideas to fulfill certain requirements in a limited time.

In the area of creativity one should certainly expect to find a dimension of originality.  It is indicated by the scores of some tests in which the responses are weighed in proportion to their infrequency of occurrence in the population of examinees.  Unusualness of responses is one of the principles of measurement of originality.

          In 1950 it is hypothesized that creative thinkers are flexible thinkers.  They readily desert old ways of thinking and strike out in new directions.  There are two factors, which seems to fit into this dimension.  One of these factors has been called ‘spontaneous flexibility’.  It is defined as the ability or disposition to produce a great variety of ideas, with freedom from inertia or from preservation.  The other type of flexibility of thinking is a ‘adaptive flexibility’ for the reason that it facilitates the solution of the problems.  This is shown best in a type of problem that requires a most unusual type of solution.

Measurement of Creativity:

          Since creativity is a psychological construct, measurement of it involves psychometric principles.  The measurement is based on the principles of quantifying the quality.  In no way, it differs from the measurement of certain dimensions.  It is mentioned earlier that of creativity dimensions fluency, originality, flexibility and personality traits are major.  Hence any psychometrican would pay his labour in measuring these four major dimensions.

          Fluency can be measured by a composite measure of its four components namely word fluency, associational fluency, expressional fluency, and ideational fluency.  Because of the word fluency is ability to produce words each containing a specific letter or combination of letters, subjects may be asked to produced words with specific letters or combination of letter.

          Originality can be measured by tests in which items call for remote associations or relationships, remote either in time or in a logical sense. 

          In contrast the word ‘fluency’, where only letter requirements are to be observed, measurement of associational fluency involves a requirement of meaning for the words given.  Expressional fluency is best measure by a test calling for the production of phrases and sentences.  A test of ideational fluency may ask examinees to name objects that are hard, white a edible or to give various uses of a common brick, or to give appropriate titles for given story plot.  Flexibility can be measure by a composite measure of its two factors namely spontaneous flexibility and adaptive flexibility.  In tests of spontaneous flexibility, the subject shows his freedom to roam about in his thinking even when it is not necessary for him to do so.  In naming uses of brick is the jump readily from one category of response to another.  Rigid thinkers, on the other hand, tend to stay within one or two categories of responses.  Adaptive flexibility can be measured best in type of problem that requires a most unusual type of solution.  The problem may appear to be soluble by means of more familiar or conventional methods, but these methods will not work.

          As Guilford (1950) noted ‘the development of scoring procedure for tests of creativity presents some unusual problems especially between subjective and objective scoring methods.  Further he suggested that creativity can be measured with the help of rating scales.

Professional Competency:

          Though Teacher Professional Competency has been recognized as an important component of Teaching-learning process related, little efforts are are made to define the term.  A peep into the literature of teacher professional competency as one finds many related terms such as ‘teaching success’, ‘successful teacher’, ‘teaching efficiency’, ‘teacher performance’ and ‘teacher competency’ etc.

          As one looks through heap of investigators in this field Barr, A.S. (1961) define ‘one finds various terms used to designate or describe the successful teacher’.  Frequently the word ‘competency’ is used.  One will note to that the terms are sometimes applied to teacher as Teacher Professional Competency and sometimes in the teacher behavior as in the teaching competency.

          Donald M.Medly (1982) disclosed that the teacher professional competency as ‘those of knowledge, abilities and beliefs a teacher possesses and bring to – the teaching situation.  Teacher Professional Competency differs from Teacher Performance and Teacher in that it is a stable characteristic of the teacher that does not change appreciably when the teacher moves from the one situation to another.

          By this it is evident that the knowledge of subject matter, teaching skills, beliefs and feelings of teachers may be considered as the components of teacher professional competency that an effective teacher is supposed to possess.

          Biddle (1964) advocates that ‘disagreement and ambiguity with respect to the description of teacher professional competency are to be expected and cannot entirely be avoided because effective teaching is undoubtedly a relative matter.  The term has been used by some investigators to refer to training process properties of teachers behavior exhibited by teachers and effects produced by teacher.  The same variables have been termed by other investigators as criteria of competency ability to teacher and a host of their terms – ‘teacher success’, teacher professional competency; ‘teacher efficiency’, ‘teacher performance’, ‘teacher effectiveness’ etc., are used synonymously by investigators.

          Ryan (1960) states ‘what constitutes effective teaching?  What are the distinguishing characteristics of concept teachers?  Are provocative and recurring questions?  Unfortunately no universal acceptable definite answers can be given to those complex queries….  Embarrassing as it may be for professional educators to recognize, relatively little progress has been made.

          Similarly Biddle and Ellena (1964) accepted that nobody know what an effective teacher was.  They said ‘probably no aspect of education has been discussed with greater frequency with as much deep concern or by more educators and citizens, than has that of teacher professional competency…..how to define it, how to identify it, how to measure it, and how to detect and remove obstacles to its achievement….  Findings about the professional competency of teachers are inconclusive and piecemeal and little is presently known for certain about teacher excellence.

          Researchers studied Teacher Professional Competency is consists of three components viz., Presage, Process and Product.  Here the presage component refers to throughout processes, training, training aspect and personality factors of the teachers.  The process component refers to the teacher actions or classroom practices and the product component refers to the quality of the products i.e., students produced.

          Jangira (1979) stated ‘Teacher Professional Competency has been considered into its three separate components for convenience of profession.  It should not be taken that these components are watertight compartments.  It also flows that there are no clear cut lines to distinguish one component from the other.

Teacher Professional Competency:

1. Already mentioned earlier on the most commonly employed criteria, to evaluate teacher professional competency are presage, process and product.

          Donald M.Medley (1982) identified four types of research designs to guide the researchers, each involving one of the four independent variables – pupils learning outcomes, pupils learning experiences, teacher performance and teacher professional competency.  The four different types of research are: Type ‘L’ research, Type of ‘P’ research, Type ‘C’ research, the dependent variable is measure of teacher performance in implementation of a particular teaching strategy and the independent variables are measures of competencies in the teachers reprehensive and external context variable.  The unit of analysis is teacher.  The purpose of type ‘C” research is to discover what competencies – what knowledge, skills and values – a teacher must process in order to implement a particular teaching model (or) strategy in a particular situation.

          It may be noted that the above said four types of researches proposed by Medley (1982) are further refinement of the passage process and product variables of teacher professional competency.  According to Kyriacon and Newson (1982) there are four variables – presage, process, contextual and product.  Context variables related to a whole of other variables which may have an influence on teacher and pupil behavior during lessons.  While the other they are same as those, which are given by Barr (1961).

          Mc.Neil and Pophan (1973) tested the criteria of assessing Teacher Professional Competency as student rating, self-ratings, administrators or peer ratings, classroom environment analysis, systematic observations, personal attitude studies, student’s gains and performance tests.  In the present study the research employs composite criteria of presage and process variables of teacher professional competency, the study of these variables done by teacher-evaluation.

Dimensions of Teacher Professional Competency:

          Out of many dimensions of Teacher Professional Competency, five dimensions are considered in this study.  They are – (1) Activity based teaching, (2) Child Centered practices, (3) Teaching Learning material and display, (4) Evaluation strategies and remedial teaching and (5) Novel strategies.

         Activity based teaching includes concept teaching abilities, illustrations, practical approach etc.  Child centered practices refer to pupil needs, individual differences, interpretations, child participation etc., are included.  Teaching Learning material refers to selection and presentation of teaching learning material preparation, display etc., are included.  Evaluation strategies include remedial measures, construction of test items different types of evaluation etc.  Novel strategies refer to interpretations, teaching strategies creative ideas etc.  The above dimensions and areas of Teacher Professional Competency differently influence the Teacher Professional Competency is the conclusion drawn by most of the researchers in the field of teacher professional competency as shown in the following diagram.

 

Pictorial presentation of dimensions of

Teacher Professional Competency

 

                                                                   Activity based teaching

                           Novel Strategies                 And hurdles in teaching

                            

 

TEACHER

PROFESSIONAL

COMPETENCY

                  Evaluation Strategies           

                 And Remedial Teaching                   Child centered Practices

          Measurement of Teacher Professional Competency:

          According to Barr (1961), there are four approaches to teachers evaluation contributing different ways by different versions; instructions and data gathering devices viz., (1) Evaluation make in terms of the qualities of the person as in personality ratings, (2) Evaluation, which proceed from strategies of teacher behavior; as in the rating of performance in terms of interpersonal qualities of desirable professional characteristics; (3) Evaluation develop from data collected relative to presumed from qualities to teacher professional competency and (4) Evaluation developed from studies of the product.  In the present study the investigator confined to third approach to teacher evaluation i.e., evaluate to develop from the data collected.

 

Relation between Teacher Creativity

And Teacher Professional Competency:

 

          Realization of educational goals and expectations of ancient and modern educationists and needs of the society are to be accomplished only with teachers with good value behavior and competency in their profession is undoubetedly most important.  B.R.Rao (1989) rightly pointed out that the quality of a teacher is considered to be associated with his values.  Similarly, Dr.D.S.Kothari (1964-66) advocates that ‘of all the different factors, which influence the quality of its contribution to national development, the quality, competency, and character of teachers are undoubtedly the most significant.  Delors Commission (1996) ascertained that it is the teacher whose role can help immensely in the inculcation of values.  The Mudaliar Commission (1952-53) observed that it would not be wrong to say that its teachers make a nation’s great.  This happens when besides being masters in their own disciplines and competent in communicating skills, teachers are also men and women of character. Theoretically this concept may be sound but in practice how the Teacher Creativity in related to Teacher Professional Competency.  To what extent they are related are the questions awaiting answers.

          Hence, the present researcher has taken up a piece of research work tool to find out the relationship between Teacher Creativity and Teacher Professional Competency and confined to school education.  The conceptual framework has been presented diagrammatically in the following diagram.

 

Relationship between Teacher Creativity

and Teacher Professional Competency

 

 

                                                                Teacher Professional

                      Teacher Creativity                       Competency

 

 

                           Flexibility                           Activity based Learning

                                                                   and hurdles in Teaching

 

 

 

                          Originality                           Child Centered Practices

 

 

 

 

                           Fluency                             Teaching Learning

                                                                         Material display

 

 

 

 

                                                                    Evaluation Strategies and

                                                                        Remedial teaching

 

 

 

                                                                    Novel Strategies     

         

The above diagram shows the relationship between Teacher Creativity and Teacher Professional Competency.  The related available literature is presented in the following chapter.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

          Man is only the creature that does not have to begin new in every generation, but can take the advantage of the knowledge, which has been accumulated through the centuries.  This fact is of particular interest in research which operates as a continuous function of every closer approximation to the truth.  The investigator can be sure that this problem does not exist in a vacuum and that considerable work has been done already on problems which are directly related to his proposed investigation.  The success of his efforts will depend in no small measure on the extent to which he capitalizes on the advance made by previous researcher.

          Kerlinger (1973) gives two main reasons for discussing the general and research literature related to the research problem.  The first of these is to clarify the theoretical rationale of the problem.  A second reason is to tell the reader what researches have not been done on the problem.  The underlying purpose is to locate the present research in the existing body of research on the subject and to point out what it contributes to the subject.

          The major purpose of this review of the available literature is to determine the significant facts which are essentially related to the problem under investigation.  For the knowledge emerging from the investigations would enable the investigator to avoid unintentional duplication, as well as it would also provide the understanding and insight for development of a logical frame work for the present problem under investigation.  Moreover, studies that have been done would provide for formulating research hypotheses an indicating what needs to be done will form the basis for the justification of the study under investigation.

          In this a glance at the previous investigations in the related areas will evidently through a light and make the path of the investigator illuminated with abundant information.  Previous studies regarding the two components creativity and professional competency are herewith incorporated.  These previous investigations will deliberately help the investigator to pursue his research.

Creativity – Studies Abroad:

          Taylor C.W. (1964) has described personality characteristics of creative persons.  They are autonomous, self-sufficient, independent in judgments, more open to the irrational, more stable, more feminine, dominant, self-assertive, complex, more self-accepting, more resourceful, adventurous, more radical, self-controlled, emotionally sensitive, introverted and bold.

          Mac.Kinnon D.W., (1963) has given following personality characteristics to creative people.  They are intelligent, original, independent in thought and action, open to experience both of the inner self and the outer world, infusive, aesthetically sensitive and free from crippling restraints.  They have high energy level, a persistent commitment to creative endeavour and a strong sense of destiny, which includes a degree of resoluteness and a measure of egotism.

          Mc.Guire, S. (1963) suggests three personality dimensions significant to mental health.  They are (1) relaxed outgoing optimism, (2) Creativity Intelligent autonomy and (3) Self-discipline stability. 

          Torrence E.P. (1964) found that creative children were often seen by peers as ‘naughty’ and having ‘wild and silly ideas’.

          Gatzels J.W., and Jackson P.W. (1962) corroborates that creative characterized by wide ranging interests, sense of homour and emotional stability.

          Torrence E.P.(1965) replicated this work eight times and on seven occasions shows similar results.

          Guilford, J.P. (1950) in his presidential address to the American Psychological Association emphasized the ‘appalling neglect of the study of creativity’ by indicating that of some 1,21,000 titles indexed in psychological abstracts from its beginning until 1950, only 186 were definitely related to the subject of creativity.

          One of the earliest investigations in the modern style into the personality and background of scientists was carried out by Rock 1952.  Twenty biologists, 22 physiologists and 22 social scientists were chosen by panel of experts in their respective fields.  Rock subjected them to long interviews covering their life history, family background, professional and recreational interests, way of thinking etc., as well as to intelligence tests and clinical personality tests which probed their inner preoccupations and attitudes to themselves and world around them, in short their personality structure.

          Graham Wallas (1956) gives 4 stages of creative process.  They are preparation, incubation, illuminatin and verification. 

          One of the striking traits by Getzels and Jackson (1959) among high school students who stand high in divergent thinking tests is a strong sense of humour. 

          Gouth (1961) Theoretical orientation, as well as original potential and general sophistication.

          Judith, L; Mc.Elvain, L.N; Grelwell and R.B.Lewing studied relationship between Creativity and Teacher Variability.  The objective of the study was to find a relation between creativity and teaching competency as well as to find other common characteristics of teachers in comparison to levels of creativity.

          Williams (1972) has proposed a model which emphasizes the following kinds of creative pupil behavior; fluent thinking, flexible thinking, original thinking, elaborate thinking, curiosity, risk taking, complexity and imagination. 

          Mac Kay (1970) used the science research temperament scale in an attempt to isolate those students who would perform better in a ‘discovery’ approach to a science course than an ‘authoritarian’ approach.

          Taft, Dewing and Gilchrist (1971) used experiences questionnaire to study people who were both highly creative and highly productive.  These people appeared to have the traits of rapidly changing states of consciousness; intense emotional responses and interests in novelty.

          Caspi (1972) devoted much effort to a process of fostering creativity in university students and initiated an alternative teacher training programmes at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem.  In his programme emphasis is placed on promoting a creative teacher personality as well as providing a wide range of experiences aimed at helping the teacher towards a creative approach to his teaching in school.

          To facilitate a meaningful link between university and school, Butter (1974) developed a model merging pre-service and in-service of teacher.  The model aims to provide a learning situation conducive to openers to new experiences and ideas, including learning situation in requiring a creative approach from all participants.

           Jan Dean, Robert Brown Sarah Young (2009) studied 'The Possum Story: Reflections of an early childhood drama Teacher'. This paper stems from the commitment of one drama teacher who was prepared to act as a researcher through her efforts to document, and communicate her beliefs and practices to others. It highlights the value of the reflective process as a way of articulating, informing and improving practice, a view supported by Taylor, who states that 'if teachers can empower themselves to believe in their own capacity to act as researchers, if they can generate faith in their own ability to observe and reflect critically on their work, then they are capable of effecting change in their own educational setting' (1998, p. 129).

An analysis of these reflections provides insight into the challenges faced by the drama practitioner working with a large group of young children. These include how to determine engaging and relevant child-centred content, how to stimulate the interests of all children in the developing story and cater for their needs, and how to promote creative problem-solving through open and responsive questioning.

In conclusion, this paper provides an illustrative and instructive example of practice that may stimulate others to engage in process drama experiences that respond to children's interests and provide rich opportunities for children to create, act-out and reflect on significant emergent stories. (Jan Deans, Robert Brown, Sarah Young, University of Melborne, 'The Possum Stody: Reflections of an early Childhood Drama Teacher', Australian Journal of Early Child, 2009 (Online Publication).

John P.Myers (2007) Studied 'Democratizing School Authority: Brazilian Teachers' Perceptions of the election of principals'.  The objective of the study is the idea of collective decision making in schools has been a popular democratic educational reform model. One of its claims is that participation in school decision making empowers teachers and improves teaching. This research investigates this claim by exploring seven teachers’ experiences with a unique democratic school reform in Porto Alegre, Brazil, the election of principals by teachers, students, parents, and staff. Results showed that the elections reshaped the school authority relations, resulting in greater freedom for teachers to introduce democratic teaching methods, while articulating the school as a democratic institution and teachers as citizens. (John P.Myers, University of Pittsburgh, USA, 'Democratizing School Authority: Brazilian Teachers' Perceptions of the election of Principals', Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education, USA, Volume 24, Issue 4, Pp.952 - 966, May, 2008).

 

Julie White (2008) studied 'Sustainable Pedagogy: A Research Narrative about performativity, Teachers and possibility'.  This study disclosed that mostly theoretical paper explores an emerging conceptualization of 'sustainable pedagogy'.  The development of this concept has drawn upon sustainability education, three interpretations of performativity as well as key concepts of professionalism and creativity.  Sustainable pedagogy involves not only acknowledgement of self and subjectivity, but professional philosophy and classroom practice that keeps fidelity with philosophy and identity.  Importantly, sustainable pedagogy also involves building and sustaining professional community.  Through its inception, an attempt is made to demonstrated that thearers' work required nourishment and strength and that sustainable pedagogy affords a richer and more complex understanding of teacher identity and professionalism, and that creativity might provide a suitable antidote to the performtivity that unfortunately currently forms much of the broader educational landscape within Australia (Julie White, La Trobe University, Australia, 'Sustainable Pedagogy: A Research Narrative about Performativity, Teachers and Possibility', Journal of the International Association for the Advancement of Curriculum Studies, 2008 - TCI-On Line Publication)

Panagiotis Kampylis and others (2009) studied 'In-service and Prospective Teachers' Conceptions of Creativity'.  In this study the authors disclosed that Teachers play a crucial role in the development of primary school students’ creative potential in either a positive or a negative way. This paper aims to draw attention to in-service and prospective teachers’ conceptions of creativity and answer three main research questions: “What are the teachers’ conceptions and implicit theories of creativity in general?”, “What are the teachers’ conceptions and implicit theories of creativity in the context of primary education?”, and “How well-trained and equipped do teachers feel to play their key role in the development of students’ creative potential?” A self-report questionnaire was used as an instrument to gather qualitative and quantitative data from 132 Greek in-service and prospective teachers. According to the selected quantitative data we present in this study, the majority of the participants reported that the facilitation of students’ creativity is included in the teachers’ role, but they (teachers themselves) do not feel well-trained and confident enough to realise this particular expectation. The authors conclude that further research is needed in order to: (i) reveal more on teachers’ conceptions on creativity and (ii) understand and classify teachers’ particular needs to facilitate the creative potential of primary school students. (Panagiotis Kampylis, Eleni Berki and Pertti Saariluoma of University of Tampere, 'In-Service and Prospective Teachers' Conceptions of Creativity', Journal of Thinking Skills and Creativity, Finland, Vol.4, Issue 1, Pp.15 - 29, April, 2009 - On-Line Journal).

Kaoru Yamamoto (2005) studied 'Creativity and Higher Education : A Review'.  The author studied that Abstract  Some recent literature is reviewed to argue that institutions of higher education have made little adjustments to either their admission practices or their curricula to help nurture varied talents among their students. Diversity seems to be lacking throughout the academic community from the undergraduate level to the professional circles. The need for renewed spirit of experimentation and of tolerance of pluralism is pointed out. (Kaoru Yamamoto, Arizona State University, USA, ‘Creativity and Higher Education: A Review’, Journal of Higher Education, ISSN: 1573-174X (Online), Pp.213-225, 2005).

Linda Reichwein Zientek and others (2008) studied 'Reporting Practices in Quantitative Teacher Education Research: One Look at the Evidence Cited in the AERA Panel Report.  The authors of this article examine the analytic and reporting features of research articles cited in Studying Teacher Education: The Report of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005) that used quantitative reporting practices. Their purpose was to help to identify reporting practices that can be improved to further the creation of the best possible evidence base for teacher education. Their findings indicate that many study reports lack (a) effect sizes, (b) confidence intervals, and (c) reliability and validity coefficients. One possible solution is for journal editors to emphasize clearly the expectations established in Standards for Reporting on Empirical Social Science Research in AERA Publications -AERA, 2006. (Linda Reichwein Zientek, Mary Margaret Capraro and Robert M.Capraro, Houston State University, Texas, Journal of Educational Research, Texas, Vol.37, No.4, Pp.208-216, 2008).

Creativity Studies in India:

          Baquer Mehdi (1970) devised a battery of tests to identify creative talent in the primary and middle school stages.  The battery consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tests of creative thinking.

          Passi (1972) developed a battery of creativity tests for higher secondary school children.  The battery consists of verbal and non-verbal tests.

          Kaul (1974) developed a test of creativity for children of 14 – 16 years age group.  Ramachandra Chari (1975) developed a test to identify creative children at the school leaving age.  The sub-tests included in (1) Fluency, (2) Flexibility (3) Originality and (4) Elaboration.  Khine (1971) found that the aspect of creativity such as fluency, flexibility, originality of thinking and elaboration remain closer to one another.

          Sharma (1971) used the factorial design to study the effect of intelligence selected interests and the socio-culture variables on creativity.  His findings revealed that for both rural and urban boys creative thinking showed progressive trends with intelligence.

          Goyal (1974) focused his study on the personality correlates of creativity in secondary school teachers under training.  Findings suggest that highly creative persons do not enter teachers training colleges and highly flexible teacher trainees appear to be more guilt prone and less imaginative. 

Joshi (1974) in his study of the intellectually gifted students found that giftedness was an effective contribution to all types of creativity scores.

Gakhar (1975) observed that 1. Creativity and Intelligences are two distinguishable modes of the same intellectual functioning; (2) Personality traits of self-acceptance and self-sufficiency were distinguishing characteristics of girls high on non-verbal creativity.

Jha (1975) probed into the personality profiles of thirty five creative persons, using the centric method, he discovered four factors.  The main factor reflected national optimism, high ego strength, realistic and healthy attitude towards life, and openness to experience, assertive, self-confidence and tendency for self-actualization.

Aaron P.G., Marihal, V.G. and Maltesha A.N. (1969) in their study aimed at finding the significant differences between rural and urban high school pupils of the same socio-economic status do not differ from each other in their educational level, attitudes, creativity and other personality characteristics.  The results indicated that there is no significant difference between creativity scores of rural and urban boys.

Deshmukh (1979) in his study the major findings were generally girls performed better than boys on creativity measures indicating significant sex differences in creativity.  There was moderate positive relationship between creativity and intelligence for various creativity factors.

Singh O.P. (1982), the main findings of his study were (1) the mean creativity score of the urban students was high than that of the rural students; (2) the mean score of science students was higher than that of arts students.

Saxena’s (1972) attempt has been to discover the differences between the over and under achievers with respect to their interests, need patterns, adjustment problems, study habits and personal and other background factors.  Another group of studies has explored the relationship of intelligence, creativity, interest, neuroticism and extraversion with scholastic achievement.

Choudhry (Abstract:1085, III Survey Report, 1983) studied ‘A Study of the Relationship between the Creative Thinking Abilities of Student-Teachers and their Classroom Verbal Behaviour’.  The objectives of the study were: (1) to study the current classroom practices of teacher-trainees and to compare them with established norms; (2) to study the relationship between verbal creative thinking abilities and figural creative thinking abilities; (3) to study the relationship between verbal creative thinking abilities of teacher-trainees and their verbal classroom behavior; (4) to study the relationship between figural creative thinking abilities of teacher-trainees and their verbal classroom behavior, and (5) to predict classroom behavior on the basis of creative thinking abilities, both verbal and figural together.

Some of the important findings drawn that (1) the verbal creative thinking abilities of the teacher-trainees were positively correlated with their figural creative thinking abilities; (2) there was significant relationship between the creative thinking abilities and some of the indices of the classroom verbal behavior; the pattern of relationship between figural creative thinking abilities and the classroom behavior was the same as that between the verbal creative thinking abilities and the classroom behavior; (3) high creative teachers increased pupil’s freedom to participate by praising, accepting and developing their ideas; (4) high creative teachers processed the content and talked more at convergent, divergent and evaluative levels and less at the factual level; (5) in the classes of high creative teachers, pupils also talked less at factual and more at convergent and divergent levels.

Nirpharake, A. (Abstract:1189, III Survey Report, 1983) investigated into ‘Training in Creative Appreciation’.  The major purpose of the investigation was to develop and try out a training programme in creative appreciation.  Creative appreciation was defined as recreating the artist’s vision, involving evaluation against the criteria of relevance, effectiveness and originality.  The investigator developed a special training programme and tried out efficacy in developing creative appreciation.  The major findings of the investigation were: (i) The experimental group showed marked improvement in all aspects of creativity after receiving training over the control group as well as over its own pretest scores.  The control group did not show any significant improvement over its pretest scores.  (ii) Training in creative appreciation was especially effective educationally because it could be adapted to various classroom situations by teachers of languages and fine arts, without having to marshall any extra techniques of creative teaching.

 Research (V – Survey of Educational Research, Vol.I, 1988-92) made on relationship between figural creative thinking of the classroom (Choudhary, S.1989); role enactment of home science teachers in teaching, research and extensions for improving the quality of teachers’ performance in these areas (Pande, M. and Chandra, A. 1992); attitude of teachers towards creative learning and teaching in relation to variables like teaching experience, academic discipline, etc. (Mathur, S. 1988);

 

 

Professional Competency – Studies Abroad:

Greg Hearn and others (1996) studied 'Defining Generic Professional Competencies in Australia: Towards a Framework for Professional Development'.  This study examines the extent to which there are competencies which are generic to professions in Australia. The seven professions of accountancy, architecture, human resource management, marketing, social work, and teaching from around Australia were surveyed using an 80-item questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed by reviewing the literature on professional competencies; work-shopping with representatives of the professional groups with nominal group technique and small group discussion; and using a preliminary study of individuals in four professional groups. A factor analysis, accounting for 51.9 percent of the total variance, extracted nine factors: Problem-solving, Others Orientation, Professional Involvement, Internal Frame of Reference, Emotional Competence, Influencing, Organizational Knowledge, Productivity, and Client Orientation. This study discusses the implications of these results for the education of professionals, for human resource managers involved in the selection, training and development of professionals, and for the transition of professionals to managers. These issues are of increasing importance to human resource managers in their role as developers of organizational capability. (Greg Hearn, Anna Close, Barry Smith and Greg Southey, Queensland University of Technology, Australia, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, Vol.34, No.1, Pp.44 - 62, 1996).

Robin Jones (1996) studied 'The Professional Competencies movement and special Education'.  The author disclosed that the teacher competencies movement in Australia is part of the larger national movement which is concerned about competencies statements for all trades and professions. Special educators are not exempt so that professional competencies statements or lists either are, or will be, developed for this profession. In the formulation process several issues and challenges will need to be addressed: the definition of the term “competencies”; the question of generic versus lists re specific disabilities; the purpose(s) of these lists; their dangers and benefits. We would do well to consider these issues now. We should also consider whether such lists or statements can encapsulate the essence of what good special education teaching is about. (Robin, Jone, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Published by Australian Journal of Special Education, Australia, Vol.20, Issue 1, Pp.40 - 48, 1996).

Malm, Birgitte, Lofgren and Horst (2006) In this study, data show that students perceive teacher competence as an integrated whole. Positive evaluations in various areas are highly correlated. However, seven specific teacher competences could be identified. This study has also identified that there are often big differences between classes with regard to teaching and students' achievement. This study also shows differences between classes in respect of attitudes, self-confidence, conflict handling strategies and teacher competence. Of these, the biggest differences were found to be those related to the seven components of teacher competence.  In testing a causal model we have been able to show that there are high correlations between teacher competence, school attitudes and self-confidence, and that these three factors are significantly related to students' ways of handling conflict situations (Malm, Birgitte, Lofgren and Horst, 'Teacher Competency and Students' Conflict handling strategies', Research in Education, Australia, November, 2006)

Burriss, Kathleen and Burriss, Larry (2004) studied 'Competency and Comfort: Teacher Candidates' Attitudes toward Diversity'. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe teacher candidates' perceived levels of competency and comfort in teaching diverse student populations. For three semesters, teacher candidates (n = 221) volunteered to complete questionnaires at the beginning of their professional education courses. A second group (n = 242) completed questionnaires as they exited student teaching. Although the majority of teacher candidates have limited professional and life experiences, findings indicate both groups feel both competent and comfortable interacting with diverse populations. (Burriss, Kathleen and Burriss, Larry, 'Competency and Comfort: Teacher Candidates' Attitudes toward Diversity', Journal of Research in Childhood Education, Washington, USA, April 1, 2004).

Moberly, Deborah A.; Conway, Kathleen D.; Girardeau, Cape; Ransdell, Mary (2002) studied 'Helping Teacher candidates become reflective about their practice (Teacher Educator/Professional Standards)'.  The study disclosed that while teacher education traditionally has focused on curriculum and instruction, assessment and accountability have become just as important. Teacher candidates must be able to document their knowledge and skills, in order to meet state and national teaching standards. Through this documentation process, teacher candidates reflect upon the products of their teaching and learning. Artifacts may range from teaching portfolios, videotapes, creative projects, and conferences, to exams and papers. Reflecting and writing about these artifacts is now a critical developmental process for teacher candidates. (Moberly, Deborah A.; Conway, Kathleen D.; Girardeau, Cape; Ransdell, Mary ,'Helping Teacher candidates become reflective about their practice (Teacher Educator/Professional Standards', Childhood Education Magazine,New York, Kentakey, USA, March 22, 2002).

Gretchen Mc.Allister and Jacqueline Jordan Irvine (2000) studied 'Cross Cultural Competency Multicultural Teacher Education'.  The text of the article disclosed that Teachers require support as they face the challenge of effectively teaching diverse students in their classrooms. Teacher-educators have used various methods to foster change in teachers' thinking, attitudes, and behaviors regarding cultural diversity, but these efforts have produced mixed results because they often focused on content rather the process of cross-cultural learning. The purpose of this review is to examine three process-oriented models that have been used to describe and measure the development of racial identity and cross-cultural competence. These models include Helm's model of racial identity development, Banks's Typology of Ethnicity, and Bennett's Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. Research using the models revealed insights for multicultural teacher education in assessing readiness to learn, designing effective learning opportunities, and providing appropriate support and challenge for teachers. (Gretchen McAllister and Jacqueline Jordan Irvine, 'Cross Cultural Competency and Multicultural Teacher Education', Review of Educational Research, USA, Vol.70, No.1, Pp.3-24, 2000)

Denise Trento De Souza (2008) studied 'Teacher Professional Development and the Argument of Incompetence'.  According to Author that this work proposes that since the early eighties a specific strategy has gained increasing importance within official Education Programmes in São Paulo (Brazil) addressed to deal with the high rates of pupil repetition and dropout: the concentration on teachers professional development. We argue that this strategy is based on the idea of teacher’s incompetence as the main explanation for educational problems. This idea pervades both the conceptions of the programmes and their proposed actions and practices. The idea of teacher’s incompetence is present in the mainstream literature, and in the formulation and implementation of official Education Programmes, namely Basic Cycle (CB), Basic Cycle in a Single Shift (CB-JU) and Quality School (EP) undertaken by the São Paulo State Secretariat for Education (SSE). This paper presents some details of the fieldwork carried out in the research project on the theme of Teacher Professional Development (TPD), presented as my PhD thesis. It also presents the main conclusions of that work. The fieldwork was based on a qualitative research method in which the perceptions, expectations, and interrelations of the involved teachers, course monitors and policy makers were extracted from a number of interviews and observations. Our analysis demonstrates the presence of what we identify as the “argument of incompetence”. It takes on different forms according to the context and to the group of the individuals involved in the activities of TPD. The core of the “argument of incompetence” follows a linear logic: “we do not have a good quality school only because we lack teachers of professional competence”. The “argument of incompetence” not only undermines the relations among the main participating agents in teacher professional development, namely, policy makers, course monitors and teachers, but it also promotes a mistaken way of thinking about teacher professional development. Mistaken and simplistic as it promotes a conception of TPD that overestimates its possibilities of dealing with chronic and broader issues of low quality of Brazilian Basic Education without taking the necessary action regarding other vital elements such as suitable conditions of work in schools and teacher’s career development.(Denise Trento De Souza, Brazil - Online: www.wwwords.co.uk/EERJ/content/pdfs/6/issue6 3.asp).

David Carr (2006) studied 'Is Understanding the Professional Knowledge of Teachers a Theory-Practice Problem?  In this study the currently fashionable professional ideal of reflective practice has focused on how good teaching might be informed by theoretical (invariably social scientific) enquiry and has been commonly construed as a matter of the effective application of theory. This paper rejects techniques assumptions underpinning the idea of applied theory, tracing them to confusion between two different sorts of practical deliberation, prognosis and techno. Understanding professional reflection primarily in term of prognosis calls into doubt both the precise role of genuine theoretical studies in professional reflection and the very status as theoretical of the sort of the principled understanding and deliberation required for the wise conduct of education.  (David Carr, Heriot-Watt University, Great Britain, Journal of Philosophy of Education, Vol.29, Issue 3, Pp.311 - 331, 2006)

Darrell M.Hull & Terrill F.Saxon (2009) studied 'Negotiation of meaning and co-construction of knowledge: An experimental analysis of asynchronous online instruction'.  According to the authors that Variations in group co-construction of knowledge and the extent to which participants engaged in negotiating meaning were directly related to instruction. The authors examined social interaction resulting from controlled variation in instruction using a counter-balanced design in two professional development courses for teachers. Both courses were held at the same time, included the same content with the same instructor, and were held in an asynchronous online format. Twenty-four subjects were randomly assigned to the two courses. Using socio-historical constructivist theory to guide instruction interventions, instruction frequency and questioning were intentionally manipulated during one-half of each course. The variations in instruction were hypothesized to promote negotiation of meaning and co-construction of knowledge within both groups. Transcript analysis using a dependent measure of social interaction was applied to the 782 utterances of the participants. Multiple comparisons revealed significant differences in the dependent measure in portions of the course where modified instructional strategies were implemented. The results show that relatively simple alterations in instructional practice (e.g., increasing instructional statements from once to twice per week and engaging participants in dialogue through open-ended questioning) yields a substantially enhanced learning outcome within this environment. Strong evidence suggests that online learning groups depend heavily on instruction to facilitate negotiation of meaning and co-construction of knowledge. This research raises concerns about whether or not instructors employ instructional strategies that influence social knowledge construction and subsequent learning outcomes from asynchronous online courses. In addition, the study demonstrates the utility of a previously published measure for social interaction in CMC. (Darrell M.Hull, University of North Texas & Terrill F.Saxon, Baylor University, USA, Source: Computers & Education, Vol.52, Issue 3, Pp.624 - 639, ISSN: 0360-1315, Publisher: Elsevier Science Ltd., UK, 2009).

Compton, Lily, K.L. (2009) studied 'Preparing Language Teachers to Teach Language Online: A look at Skills, Roles, and Responsibilities'.  This paper reviews and critiques an existing skills framework for online language teaching. This critique is followed by an alternative framework for online language teaching skills. This paper also uses a systems view to look at the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders in an online learning system. Four major recommendations are provided to help language teacher training programs prepare future language teachers for online language teaching. (Compton, Lily, K.L., 'Preparing Language Teachers to Teach Language Online: A look at Skills, Roles, and Responsibilities', Journal of Computer Assisted Language Learning, Vol.22, No.1, Pp.73 - 99, -2009, Online Publication by Educational Journal - 824747).

 

Professional Competency – Studies in India:

          Professional Competency, though quite receipt in origin with astonishing rapidity has become almost a catch word.  As the previous investigations are meager the present investigation cannot place many researches here at this juncture.

 

          Kaul, S. (1977) studied ‘Personality factors, Values and Interests among the most accepted and least accepted Secondary School Female Teaches of Mathura District’. The main objectives of the study were – (a) to construct a Teacher Acceptance Scale; (b) to identify Personality factors that differentiated between most accepted and low accepted teachers at Secondary School level; (c) to identify the Values that differentiated most accepted teachers from less accepted teachers; (d) to study the interests that differentiated most accepted teachers from least accepted teachers; (e) to interpret and analyze personality factors, value and interests, which were not common in the most accepted and less accepted teachers.  The findings of the study were: (1) more outgoingness denoted group acceptance. Reservedness promoted group acceptance.  Intelligence promoted group acceptance.  Assertiveness denoted acceptance.  The more conscious, more tender minded and more related were better accepted by their class students; (2) Craft pursuit denoted acceptance.  Interest in the fine arts, science, medicine, agriculture, the outdoors, sports, literatu

About the Author

* N.V.S.Suryanarayana, M.Sc (Chem)., M.Sc (Geo)., M.A (Eng)., M.A (Phil)., M.A (CC&E)., PGDCA., PGDEPM., PGDIPM., CFA., CPFN., CIG., C.Yoga&Con;., M.Ed., M.Phil. (Ph.D).
Teacing Associate, Department of Education, Andhra University Campus, Vizianagaram.

** Goteti Himabindu, M.A(Pol.)., M.Li.Sc., M.A (Edn.)., B.Ed., M.Phil., (Ph.D).
Teaching Associate, Department of Politics., Andhra University Campus, Vizianagaram.

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Discover the Airplane Ceiling Fan

At some point or another everyone has dreamed of flying. Why not bring those childhood dreams to life with an airplane ceiling fan? Available in a plethora of sizes and styles, these fans can add the perfect finishing touch to a child's room or make any flight aficionado's collection complete.

One of the more creative piece of art is the Fantasy Flyer from Hunter. Modeled after a World War Two fighter plane, this fan is sure to bring a smile to any little guy's face. These fan blades are constructed to resemble airplane propellers plus it comes with an unique decal of the plane's body. Once combined, the fan looks like a plane diving right into the room!

Another warplane replica, the Craftmade Tiger Shark War Plane ceiling fan would make a bold statement in any bedroom or man-cave. With bold red and black colors, this fan is designed to resemble the nose of a warbird nose diving into the room with gritty fan blades as propellers.

For a subtler look or a younger child's room, the Hunter Bayport ceiling fan with airplane blades is the perfect choice. This fan's white finish makes it easy to combine with existing decor while the blades feature fun illustrations of airplanes with puffs of smoke trailing behind.

For adults who are intrigue by the idea of flight, a vintage airplane ceiling fan is perfect. These fans are available in several styles with the blades featuring illustrations of vintage fighter and bi-wing planes. Another great choice would be replica style ceiling fans. For example the Craftmade's Warbirds Glamorous Glen model, which boasts bold black, red, yellow and steel styling with a light touch on the nose of the plane.

For all others who still want to go head on into the nostalgia of flight, the Hunter Fantasy Flyer is a must see. This special fan has a body and blades that resemble a Corsair fighter airplane. Decked out in blue, gray, and red, the fan would be a great addition to your room as-is. Hunter doesn't stop there. They're included a decal to be placed on the ceiling that makes this fan a real showstopper. To complete the image of a plane nose diving into the room, just place the decal behind the fan itself and you're ready to rumble. You really have to see it to believe it!

From young to old and anywhere in between, these fun and creative fans can bring back memories or stir new dreams. For even more fun, add a ceiling fan pull chain with an airplane on the end and let your imagination take flight!

About the Author

Seal Frank is an online article writer and an interior designer specializing in ceiling fans. If you want the perfect ceiling fan for your room, visit http://www.everyceilingfans.com/ now to get everything you need including the airplane ceiling fan.

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Getting into Flying Scale Model Airplanes

Almost or many RC airplane enthusiast dream of having their favorite Full Size replica to bore holes in the sky. But it will not be easy just to copy the exact dimension of the full size airplane and then scale it down to what ever you desire, like for example 1/8 scale, 1/4 scale so forth and so on. Even though you know how to use CAD software to design and draw the airplane, without considering the aerodynamic principles, you won't have a stable airplane. So this is the first step on how to fly scale model airplanes. It will be impossible to fly your scale Model Airplane without considering the aerodynamic design. Again, before you attempt to build & fly your very first scale model, you should have already build your skill to at least an intermediate level. Meaning, flying a non-scale shoulder wing design type of model airplane. Then choose the trainer type full-scale model airplane like the Cessna 150 or J3 Piper Cub.

At least those airplanes have a built-in stability design. The wings constant chord and rectangular (for J3 Piper Cub). High wing location, meaning the wings is above the fuselage, which have pendulum stability. Landing gear is tricycle type (for Cessna 150). But wait, does this mean the stability is the same when you scale down those airplanes? The answer is No. Those airplanes will fly terrible when you scale it down and copy the exact dimensions. Like what I've mentioned previously, the aerodynamic design should be considered. This phenomenon is known as " The Scale Effect". You can't scale down the air molecules & the viscosity of air. The behavior will be different. The wing location & wing area, horizontal and vertical stabilizer area & location, airfoil design, plays a major role on its stability.      

Redesigning the airplane is essential. The model has to be redesigned based on the lift and drag coefficients and Reynolds number on its miniature dimensions to achieve stability. This is why some Almost Ready to Fly, Ready to Fly or Kits have 30% or 40% scale specification. Meaning only 30% was copied from the full size airplane. Possibly the horizontal stabilizer area was modified or vertical stabilizer. Changed the airfoil type or wing area. In order to achieve stability. The closer its size to the full size airplane, the more you can copy the exact dimension and behavior. This is why 1/4 scale model airplanes are popular to those really serious on RC airplane modeling. Considering the cost and set-up, danger to life and property, it will only be possible for those who were well to do. Imagine how many gallons of fuel it will consume! You will also need bigger flying field. Good thing that gas or petroleum engines (chainsaw engines) are fit to use in those monsters which reduces the cost of fuel. Unlike using methanol, castor oil and nitromethane for fuel on glow engines.   

So before having any expectations on acquiring one, first consider those facts.

About the Author

Learn about cherry bush and cherry extract at the Types Of Cherry Trees site.

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Military Watches

In Navigator watch design, the seconds bezel allowed the pilot to synchronize the seconds hand with correct reference time before takeoff, and to make manual corrections to radio time signals while in flight, thus eliminating any "chronometer error" and the navigational errors that could result.

Great War, Great Technological Advances

Seconds continued to be of the essence in both military technology and military watches. "Center-seconds" hands, (also called a "hack seconds feature") - the feature that allowed for synchronization between two timepieces - continued to improve and advance.

Sizing is all over the board; historically, such notable companies as Elgin, Waltham, and Bulova Watches crafted watches (for the renamed Army Air Force in 1941), as small as 31mm in diameter. These watches were worn on the outside of a flight jacket or on the navigator's thigh. The Germans also added antimagnetic protection to their chronometers.

Within another major Axis power, Seiko produced a staggering number of military watches for the Japanese Imperial Army and Navy. These watches averaged around 49mm in diameter.

Navigating The Cold War

As the days of WWII faded into memory and the strained peace of the "Cold War" became reality, military budgets and military technology boomed. In the era of nuclear bombs the airplane ascended to its most powerful military and political role in history. Watchmakers rose to the call by designing an instrument worthy of going into battle with humankind's most powerful weapon. Those were the Glory Days of the military watch, although no one design house can claim full credit for the strides made in the industry during that time.

Cold War-era military watches were much larger in size than the average American navigators before them. Averaging 36mm in diameter, the crafting of these timepieces was moved to Switzerland and Swiss military watch companies with centuries' old reputations for precision. Like those before them, these Navigators also featured a matte black dial marked with white Arabic numerals 1-12, and with white indices. The new designs did not have white numerals at cardinal 3, 6, 9, and 12. Another new addition was a shatterproof Perspex acrylic crystal, which protected its large 12 ligne movement from magnetic fields. These hand-wound watches were expected to be water-resistant to 20 feet, including water-resistance under low-pressure at operational altitudes.

Own A Piece of History - At A Reasonable Price

While several of the top-tier watchmakers are reviving this classic style, vintage quality does not have to break the bank. Seiko watches established a reputation for the brand, recognized by watch collectors. You can buy watches from Seiko for reasonable prices, classic Navigator-style watches can be enjoyed by all. For more watches informations CHECK OUT HERE.

About the Author

"David Alexander is a great admirer of well crafted watches and vintage timepieces. Since his earliest days he can remember always being fascinated by the intricacies of the gears and mechanisms of a finely made timepiece. Today David publishes information regarding some of the finest watches and timepieces available. Go to http://eleganttimepiece.com/ for more watches informations"

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Modelling And Its Prospects

Modelling is one industry that offers a glamorous career with tremendous scope and opportunities for travel. One also gets to meet various classes of people belonging to different cultures. If you have established yourself as a valuable model, you will rake in good money. However, it involves lots and lots of hard work, unwavering dedication and significant perseverance on the part of the model. But it is a highly competitive industry and it usually features a short-lived profession. It is the physical attributes and personal qualities that matter the most than a model’s educational qualifications. One can explore various types of modelling areas that can be categorised broadly into ramp modelling, television modelling, online modelling and print modelling. One does not need to have any precise qualifications or age specifications if one wants to enter this field.

With a good portfolio consisting of fashion photographs and videos, you can try entering the field. The coordinating agency or the fashion agents will help you if they are satisfied with your portfolio. Another way to step into the field is to participate in the various beauty contests sponsored by magazines and cosmetic companies; do make it a point to take part in beauty pageants also. Models usually learn on the job. Short term courses are also made available in certain metro cities. Training programs take account of beauty care, make-up tips, hair styling, food and exercise, presentation skills, etc. You will also be provided with the required guidance on how to strike a contract, how to create a portfolio, and the like.

The main traits required of a person to become a model include a healthy complexion and very forceful and energetic expressions. Needless to say, you should be photogenic. The fashion industry has a sort of criteria for women to qualify as models. Being photogenic is what is needed the most to become a model. The body language of the aspirant is very important. Job prospects are good for the talented lot. Modelling has on offer a lot of opportunities and some big money to the right candidates. Opportunities abound in the advertisement field, music videos, fashion shows, showroom displays and garment fairs. One also gets to act in television programmes and films.

You will also be able to find jobs in the field of television modelling. This area involves posing and modelling for television commercials, cinema clips, videos, internet sites, and the like. To become a successful television model, a natural leaning or flair for acting is a prerequisite. In the print modelling segment, one will have to pose for still photographs that are intended to be used in the advertisement of various products and services; one may also pose to get featured in brochures, magazines, product catalogues, calendars, etc. Models working in the print media arena have to work with ad agencies and professional photographers. In the showroom modelling segment, a model would be working for exporters, garment manufacturers and garment retailers so that the photographs can be used to display the latest trends in fashion.

About the Author

The author is a copy writer and is working for a model agency.To know more about k"> diesel models agency and is diesel models a scam visit model-link.co.uk

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Enzo Ferrari - His Story

Born in Emilia-Romagna, and raised in Modena, Italy, Enzo Ferrari grew up with little formal education but a strong desire to race cars. During World War I he was a mule-skinner in the Italian Army. His grandfather, Alfredo, died in 1916 as a result of a widespread Italian flu outbreak. Enzo became sick himself and was consequently discharged from Italian service. Upon returning home he found that the family firm had collapsed. Having no other job prospects he sought unsuccessfully to find work at Fiat and eventually settled for a job at a smaller car company called CMN redesigning used truck bodies into small, passenger cars. He took up racing in 1919 on the CMN team, but had little initial success.

He left CMN in 1920 to work at Alfa Romeo and racing their cars in local races he had more success. In 1923, racing in Ravenna, he acquired the Prancing Horse badge which decorated the fuselage of Francesco Baracca's (Italy's leading ace of WWI) SPAD fighter, given from his mother, taken from the wreckage of the plane after his mysterious death. This icon would have to wait until 1932 to be plastered on a Racing Car. In 1924 he won the Coppa Acerbo at Pescara. His successes in local races encouraged Alfa to offer him a chance of much more prestigious competition and he was lauded by Mussolini. Ferrari turned this opportunity down and in something of a funk he did not race again until 1927 and even then his racing career was mostly over. He continued to work directly for Alfa Romeo until 1929 before starting Scuderia Ferrari as the racing team for Alfa.

Ferrari managed the development of the factory Alfa cars, and built up a team of over forty drivers, including Giuseppe Campari and Tazio Nuvolari. Ferrari himself continued racing until the birth of his first son in 1932 (Alfredo Ferrari, known as Dino, who died in 1956).

The support of Alfa Romeo lasted until 1933 when financial constraints made Alfa withdraw. Only at the intervention of Pirelli did Ferrari receive any cars at all. Despite the quality of the Scuderia drivers the company won few victories (1935 in Germany by Nuvolari was a notable exception). Auto Union and Mercedes dominated the era.

In 1937 Alfa took control of its racing efforts again, reducing Ferrari to Director of Sports under Alfa's engineering director. Ferrari soon left, but a contract clause restricted him from racing or designing for four years.

He set up Auto-Avio Costruzioni, a company supplying parts to other racing teams. But in the Mille Miglia of 1940 the company manufactured two cars to compete, driven by Alberto Ascari and Lotario Rangoni. During World War II his firm was involved in war production and following bombing relocated from Modena to Maranello. It was not until after World War II that Ferrari sought to shed his fascist reputation and make cars bearing his name, founding today's Ferrari S.p. A. in 1945.

The first open-wheeled race was in Turin in 1948 and the first victory came later in the year in Lago di Garda. Ferrari participated in the Formula 1 World Championship since its introduction in 1950 but the first victory was not until the British Grand Prix of 1951. The first championship came in 1952-53, when the Formula One season was raced with Formula Two cars. The company also sold production sports cars in order to finance the racing endeavours not only in Grand Prix but also in events such as the Mille Miglia and Le Mans. Indeed many of the firm's greatest victories came at Le Mans (14 victories, including six in a row 1960-65) rather than in Grand Prix, certainly the company was more involved there than in Formula One during the 1950s and 1960s despite the successes of Juan-Manuel Fangio (1956), Mike Hawthorn (1958), Phil Hill (1961) and John Surtees (1964).

In the 1960s the problems of reduced demand and inadequate financing forced Ferrari to allow Fiat to take a stake in the company. Ford had tried to buy the firm in 1963 for US$18 million but had been rejected. The company became joint-stock and Fiat took a small share in 1965 and then in 1969 they increased their holding to 50% of the company. (In 1988 Fiat's holding was increased to 90%).

Ferrari remained managing director until 1971. Despite stepping down he remained an influence over the firm until his death. The input of Fiat took some time to have effect. It was not until 1975 with Niki Lauda that the firm won any championships - the skill of the driver and the ability of the engine overcoming the deficiencies of the chassis and aerodynamics. But after those successes and the promise of Jody Scheckter title in 1979, the company's Formula One championship hopes fell into the doldrums. 1982 opened with a strong car, the 126C2, world-class drivers, and promising results in the early races.

However, Gilles Villeneuve was killed in the 126C2 in May, and teammate Didier Pironi had his career cut short in a violent end over end flip on the misty backstraight at Hockenheim in August. Pironi was leading the driver's championship at the time; he would lose the lead as he sat out the remaining races. The team would not see championship glory again during Ferrari's lifetime.

Enzo Ferrari died in Modena in 1988 at the age of 90 at the beginning of the dominance of the McLaren Honda combination. The only race which McLaren did not win in 1988 was the Italian Grand Prix - this was held just weeks after Enzo's death, and, fittingly, the result was a 1-2 finish for Ferrari, with Gerhard Berger leading home Michele Alboreto. After Enzo's death, thee Scuderia Ferrari team has had further success, notably with Michael Schumacher from 1996-2005.

Made a Cavaliere del Lavoro in 1952, to add to his honours of Cavaliere and Commendatore in the 1920s, Enzo also received a number of honorary degrees, the Hammarskjöld Prize in 1962, the Columbus Prize in 1965, and the De Gasperi Award in 1987. In 1994, he was posthumously inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame. Enzo famously used purple ink in his fountain pen, although the reason for this remains unclear.

After the death of his son, Alfredo "Dino" Ferrari, Enzo wore sunglasses just about every day to honor his son.

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How Military Uses Alternative Source of Energy

The US military knows that its branches must revamp their thinking about how to engage in "the theater of war" in the new, post-Cold War world of the 21st century. One thing that the military leaders stress is the desire for the forces deployed in the theater to be able to be more energy-independent. Currently the US military has policies and procedures in place to interact with allies or sympathetic local populaces to help its forces in the field get their needed energy and clean water when engaged in a foreign military campaign. However, this is not wholly reliable, as the US might well find itself facing unilateral military activities, or have itself in a situation where its allies cannot help it with the resources it needs to conduct its military actions successfully.

The US military is very interested in certain alternative energies that, with the right research and development technologically, can make it energy independent, or at least a great deal more so, on the battlefield. One of the things that greatly interests the military along these lines is the development of small nuclear reactors, which could be portable, for producing theater-local electricity. The military is impressed with how clean-burning nuclear reactors are and how energy efficient they are. Making them portable for the typical warfare of today's highly mobile, small-scaled military operations is something they are researching. The most prominent thing that the US military thinks these small nuclear reactors would be useful for involves the removal of hydrogen (for fuel cell) from seawater. It also thinks that converting seawater to hydrogen fuel in this way would have less negative impact on the environment than its current practices of remaining supplied out in the field.

Seawater is, in fact, the military's highest interest when it comes to the matter of alternative energy supply. Seawater can be endlessly "mined" for hydrogen, which in turn powers advanced fuel cells. Using OTEC, seawater can also be endlessly converted into desalinated, potable water.  Potable water and hydrogen for power are two of the things that a near-future deployed military force will need most of all.

In the cores of nuclear reactors—which as stated above are devices highly interesting, in portable form, to the US military—we encounter temperatures greater than 1000 degrees Celsius. When this level of temperature is mixed with a thermo-chemical water-splitting procedure, we have on our hands the most efficient means of breaking down water into its component parts, which are molecular hydrogen and oxygen. The minerals and salts that are contained in seawater would have to be extracted via a desalination process in order to make the way clear for the water-splitting process. These could then be utilized, such as in vitamins or in salt shakers, or simply sent back to the ocean (recycling). Using the power of nuclear reactors to extract this hydrogen from the sea, in order to then input that into fuel cells to power advanced airplanes, tanks, ground vehicles, and the like, is clearly high on the R & D priority list of the military.

About the Author

John Harrison has been doing lots of studies on alternative energy since 1997. For more information, visit his blog : Homemade Energy

 

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The Various Models of Jeep CJ

Human beings have always had a fascination for the vehicles that they drive. Man was very close to his first vehicle the horse. Then chariots came along with other forms. Then with time the motor vehicles were introduced. When they were introduced they had a very limited power and were used only for basic transportation services. But with time they evolved into a machine that can be used for adventurous purpose. This article deals about the various models of Jeep CJ.

The company has introduced a lot of models and they have been very successful too. They produce trucks, heavy vehicles, and off roaders. The various off roaders of jeep were jeep cj, jeep sj, jeep dj, jeep mj.

They used to give the vehicles which are used by these great people as a memento. The jeep company tried to find an alternative to this and decided to give some sort of a civilian vehicle which has a better look. This is the reason for the development of the new model Jeep CJ.

This model was designed based on a military model jeep which has a good reach among the public, mainly, with people who has much passion towards the nation.

One of the popular jeep model CJ was cj-2. It was designed based on the military jeep used in World War II. People were really having a wonderful time with this model. It was like a modified version of four by four and it was based on the famous Willy design. It had under its hoods the Willy's go devil engine.

It was an agricultural vehicle that looked very much akin to military vehicle. So they have decided to make some changes in the engine of the vehicle similar to the one that was used for military purpose. The company was successful in selling about two million units which is really a huge success.

This was the model that made jeep truly a world class vehicle. It became a name that was famous around the world. Jeep gave the license to Mitsubishi of Japan and Mahindra of India to produce vehicles that were based on the cj 3B model.

They made some slight modifications to the vehicle that was used for military purposes. The company sold more than 2 million units of this model and it was very big success for the company.

The other model that needs a mention in the jeep cj's story is the cj4. It was the vehicle that was created with the Willy's hurricane engine. It was expected to be a huge success. But it didn't even go to the actual mass production stage.

It was so successful that many special editions of this model were introduced. Some of the special models of jeep cj5 were tuxedo park mark III and IV, renegade I, II, super jeep, golden eagle.

The famous jeep model cj was the cj-2. It was the model based on the military jeep used in World War II. The people who bought it had a lot of fun with it. It also brought a sense of pride to the owners due to its similarity with the military jeep. It is a four by four vehicle just like the military version. It was based on the Willy's design. It had the Willy's go devil engine.

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Grand Cherokee
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CJ-7
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Ghost Military Town in Chernobyl Exclusion Zone

Chernobyl-2. Military Facility in the shadow of Chernobyl.

Information about the unique, once secret facility - “Beyond-the-horizon radar station”, established in the city of Chernobyl-2

   The city Chernobyl-2 is located northwest of the small town of Chernobyl in Polissia region of Ukraine, but it is impossible to find on any topographical map. Exploring the maps, you are likely to find a symbol for a children's boarding house, or a dotted line of forest roads on a place of accommodation of the town, but no reference to urban and technical buildings. In the USSR, they were able to hide a secret, even more so if it was a military secret. 

   
     

   Only due to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant did it become known of the existence of a small town (military garrison) in the Polissia woods which was engaged ... in "space espionage." In the seventies of the last century were created unique military radar systems to track ballistic missile launches from the territories (or military bases and submarines) of the likely opponent. The created radar system was named “Over-the-horizon radar station” (Duga-1). With its enormous size and receiving antenna masts, Duga-1 demanded a large human resource - approximately 1,000 people worked on the military alert status at the site. For the militarmen and their families, a small town with one street was built, named Kurchatov.
   In the map below, one can see the urban infrastructure.

The layout of the Chernobyl-2 city infrastructure, prepared on the basis of site imagery and wikimapia.org.en, wikipedia.org.

   The decision to create the “Over-the-horizon radar station” (Duga-1) (near the Chernobyl) was made under government orders dated January 18, 1972 and April 14, 1975
   By 1976, the main radar site Chernobyl-2 was built. The general designer of the radar station in Chernobyl-2 was the Research Institute for long-distance radio communication (NIIDAR). Chief Designer and inspiration of the ideas for Duga-1 was Franz Kuzminsky.
   The first tests of the radar by the State Commission occurred in 1979. As experts "... during preparations for the tests, it was necessary to solve some practical problems caused by circumstances of something absolutely new and unique, not having analogies in the world means ..."
   According to some sources - "... during the tests carried out to detect the launch of ballistic missiles and rocket carrier at Eastern U.S. missile test sites, checked the adequacy of models on the results of detection of associated launches of ballistic missiles and missile carriers of the U.S., which confirmed the correctness of the chosen model representations."
   However, shortcomings were found and the system had a lack of quality and single definition of goals and objectives for small groups. The hight-quality radar station work achieved only conditions for the massive strikes of ballistic missiles of the likely opponent.
   Despite some functional limitations in 1982, according to the Resolution of the Government (on May 31, 1982), Chernobyl-2 was accepted into a trial operation. On the occasion of the acceptance into operation of the radar "Duga" (so-called military station in Chernobyl-2), the developers of the complex received state awards - VN Vasenev, BM Danilov, NF Dubrovsky, Y. Krokunov, etc.
   Together with the radar station in Chernobyl, the USSR created two similar systems in the cities of Nikolayev and Komsomolsk-on-Amur. In the map from space, you can see how these Duga-1 facilities were controlled.

Radars cover territory – Duga-1 (Chernobyl-2 and Nikolaev) and Duga-2 (Komsomolsk-na-Amure)

   With the beginning of operations at these complexes, additional problems occurred. It turns out that part of the working frequency range of the radar systems coincided with systems of civil aviation and the fishing fleets from European countries. The USSR received an official appeal from Western countries that the establishment of this system significantly affects the safety of aviation and maritime navigation.
   The USSR conceded and stopped using the working frequency. Immediately before this, the designers were asked to address the deficiencies of the radar. Scientists and designers solved the problem, and after modernization, the system started again in 1985.
   After the Chernobyl accident in 1986, the radar was removed from alert status, and equipment was disabled. Military and civilians were evacuated from the zone of radioactive contamination. When the USSR and the military leadership had understood the extent of environmental disaster, it was decided (in 1987) to export the valuable equipment and systems to the city of Komsomolsk.
   So, the unique facility providing a space shield over the Soviet state ceased operation, and the city and urban infrastructure has been neglected and abandoned.

More information on the web-site chornobyl.in.ua

About the Author

Ecologist. Working on the territory of Chernobyl exclusion zone.

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Traveling by a Private Jet

Traveling by private jet is convenient, and seems quite glamorous to many people. Private jet charter is a privilege and a luxury few people ever know or experience. Given these perceptions, you may be surprised to know that private jets and charter flight had very humble and even uncertain beginnings.

You may also be surprised to learn that jet-powered aircraft actually predate charter flight itself. The first jet-propelled aircraft was built nearly one hundred years ago by a Romanian inventor, Henri Coanda. An odd-looking aircraft, it was a type of thermojet that used a compressor instead of a propeller, which exhausted hot gases along the side of the machine at great velocity that actually provided a reactive force, pushing the plane forward. During its first and only flight in December of 1910, Coanda noticed that the burning gases had a tendency to hug the sides of the aircraft known to this day as the Coanda Effect,which is why both commercial and private jet engines are mounted either at the rear of the plane, or far out on the wings.

Similar engines were developed during the 1930s and 40s. The first practical, true turbojet the Heinkel He 178 actually flew in 1939. Due to the conservatism of German Air Force authorities however and political maneuvering within the German military, this jet fighter was never to see service. The first operational jet aircraft to see action was the Messerschmitt Me 262, which first flew in combat in April, 1944, little over a year before Germany’s defeat. After World War II, this technology was quickly employed by the U.S. Army Air Corps (later the Air Force) and Britains Royal Air Force. The British were actually the first to make jet engine technology available to the civilian market: the De Havilland Comet became the first commercial jet airliner around 1950. After nearly sixty years, many of these are still in service as transport planes for the Royal Air Force.

Business aircraft had been around since the early 1930s, but it wasn't until 1964 that the first small private jet was manufactured and offered to the general public. The Learjet 23 was actually based on a proposed fighter-jet design for the Swiss Air Force. The Swiss passed on the design, but William P. Lear saw its potential and with this aircraft, a new market for efficient, high-speed private jet charter was opened.

The Learjet 23 was followed by several more models, and competing companies entered the fray as well. Today, when you book your private jet charter, you’ll very likely be flying a Learjet 60, a Gulfstream IV or a Cessna Citation X, depending on your destination, needs and schedule.

About the Author

Jonathan Blocker is an avid business and travel writer. He has been traveling on commercial airlines and air charters for several years. He has traveled millions of miles around the world using charter flights and jet charter services

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How to fit a wing engine

A wing engine is used for emergency propulsion and also efficient engine running at low speeds.

One possible issue with twin engine installation in a motor cruiser, is access for servicing. Depending on how deep the V bottomed hull is, it can be difficult to get to the outboard sides of the engines.

When an engine needs upgrading, rather than rebuilding the existing engine, and only if there is space, it is possible to build a wing engine. This will ensure that access to main engine is not compromised and there is access to the extra engine.

The wing engine will offer two benefits - an emergency means of propulsion, and a single engine working hard when slow speed is required. This is much better than running the main engine under very light load.

Adding the extra engine and fuel system to a heavy build means the fully laden displacement may cause the boat to exceed its specifications, and possibly compromise cruising speed. Engine choice has to be a compromise of cost, weight, size and power.

A 13hp motor will give around 4.5 knots in calm conditions and about 8 miles per gallon. Running the engine at 10hp will give around 4 knots and 10mpg. A 14hp Kubota-based engine, on a boat like this, should fit requirements and with a 40A alternator fitted will offer excellent battery charging while running under a reasonable load. Don't forget, an alternator will offer little charge with the engine running at low rpm.

For a main engine with a capacity of 100gal, giving a potential range of over 200 miles at 10 knots, a wing engine should use a standard 10gal - giving a useful range of around 90 miles at 4 knots.

As part of fail-safe philosophy, the two fuel systems are not connected, each having its own filter. The two electrical systems are also completely independent. They could be interconnected using jump leads.

Its worth considering that a major part of this kind of project could be the calculation of the position of the engine beds to give the required angle for the shaft, and the length of shaft and the size and position of the P brackets.

Once the engine is set up, a hole is drilled through the hull and after checking the alignment, a Full Size hole must be bored for the stern tube, the shaft fitted and P brackets fitted. The tube is then glassed in place, the P bracket bolted through internal and external backing pads and the stern gland fitted. Once the propeller shaft is in pace, proper alignment should be carried out. And with the engines exhaust bend close to the waterline, a water separator should be fitted with a swan neck to ensure no cooling water can find its way back to the cylinders.

With all the hard work involved in fitting a wing engine, is it worth it? Fitting a wing engine gives the added benefit of single engine accessibility, economical low speed cruising when necessary and the luxury of a completely independent back-up population system.

About the Author

Related guide on Selling A Boat Online classifieds of Boats For Sale from TheYachtMarket

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What job is better fighter jet pilot in the navy, or fighter jet pilot in the RAF?

Because I understand that navy pilot will probably be more challenging because you will have to land on aircraft carriers, I also understand that the RAF will not receive the F-35 and only the royal navy will.
Any ex-RAF/Navy pilots out there that can help me out here?

I don't know about the better job but, clearly Naval aviators are the cream of the crop. They can do anything and RAF pilot can do plus they can land a 70 million dollar or more jet on a runway the size a American football field(100yards) in rough seas, at night, with little or no lights to guide them. That takes nerves of steel and a cool hand on the stick.